Abstract
In bi/multilingual societies, the process of code-mixing and language hybridization holds great significance. The present study attempts to examine the process of language hybridization in the Pashto local context. The purpose of the study is to show that code-mixing of English lexical items in Pashto spoken discourse has resulted in the formation of English-Pashto lexical hybrids. Research data was collected through observation and television programs in the Pashto language. Data is analyzed by using Kachru's model of code-mixing of English in Hindi, where Unit Hybridization is applied, which is further added by the Sarwet Rasul model. Based on the research data, it was revealed that the English code mixed words in the Pashto language are mostly nouns. These words, when used by Pashto speakers, are made hybrid by adding different types of Pashto suffixes. The findings also revealed that because of the prestige factor attached, English words are used in Pashto spoken discourse which shows morphological deviations because of the influence of the mother tongue, i.e., Pashto language.
Key Words
Code-mixing, Language Hybridization, English Language, Pashto Language
Introduction
There is a great role of globalization and British colonization in the spread of the English language across the globe. It is spoken and understood almost everywhere in the world. English, when spoken as a second language or as a foreign language in a non-native context, has a great influence on other languages spoken in that context. Similarly, the English language is also affected when spoken in a
non-native context.
In Pakistan, being a former British colony, English being the dominant and prestigious language has influenced the national and local languages (Rasul, 2006). Similarly, English is also influenced by the local languages because of the language contact situation. As given in Rafi (2013), languages continued to maintain borrowing and code-mixing for a prolonged period when they existed in contact. Code-mixing results because of lexical borrowing. These processes of borrowing and code-mixing are reflected in the multilingual context of Pakistan because Pakistanis make use of many English lexical items in their daily spoken discourse.
Code-mixing, code-switching, lexical borrowing, and hybridization are some of the common phenomena in a multilingual context. Code-mixing results in language hybridization. "Lexical hybrid" basically means a word that is formed by mixing elements from two languages. Kachru (1983) has studied and pointed out, as cited in Ahmad and Ali (2014), that South Asian Englishes show innovations in the use of hybridized structures which results because of joining native words to English words. In Urdu and other local languages which are spoken in Pakistan, the frequent use of English words has resulted in the process of hybridization in the multilingual context of Pakistan. As English influenced Urdu in Pakistan, it also influenced the local and regional languages spoken. Pashto language, spoken by Pashtuns in Pakistan, is also influenced equally.
The present study sets out to investigate the phenomenon of language hybridization in the local context of the Pashto language, which is the resultant process of English and Pashto language interaction. Pashto is the second-largest regional language of Pakistan and is the native tongue of Pashtuns as English words are being borrowed and used in Urdu, also revealed by Rasul's (2013) study that borrowing and code-mixing also exist in children’s magazines. Similarly, some of the borrowed English words have become a part of the local languages too. For instance, English and Pashto interaction has resulted in the process of hybridization in the local Pashto context. Frequent use of English borrowed words has resulted in the formation of English-Pashto lexical hybrids.
The Pashto language has adopted many English words, e.g., some of the words are computer, book, light, switch, drama, film, student, etc. So, the phenomenon of borrowing is reflected in the spoken discourse of Pashtuns. Pashto speakers make use of many English lexical items such as plate, driver, chair, table, machine, etc., in their daily Pashto conversations. When a Pashtun makes use of an English word in a Pashto conversation, the word undergoes some morphological change to be adjusted in that particular context, and so hybrid lexical items are formed. These lexical hybrids show morphological deviations. The present study aims to focus on the morphological deviations that the English lexical items undergo when used in Pashto spoken discourse.
Research Problem
In bi/multilingual societies, the occurrence of code-mixing and language hybridization phenomena is natural. Similarly, in the multilingual context of Pakistan, the phenomena of code-mixing and language hybridization exist. Contemporary studies reveal that in Pakistan, English-Urdu language hybridization has been researched mostly. However, less attention has been given to the English Pashto language hybridization in Pashto spoken discourse. Therefore, keeping in view the growth of the hybridization phenomenon in Pashto spoken discourse, this paper attempts to address the gap in studying the causes of the formation of English Pashto lexical hybrids in the daily conversation of Pashto speakers.
Research Questions
(1) What is the nature of English-Pashto lexical hybrids?
(2) What are the reasons behind the formation of hybrid lexical items in Pashto spoken discourse?
Significance of the Study
Many types of research have been conducted on the phenomenon of code-mixing and language hybridization in Pakistan, particularly English Urdu code-mixing and hybridization. The present paper provides an insight into these phenomena as being operated in Pashto local context and also attempts to enlist some reasons for hybrid word-formation. This study will be helpful in understanding the phenomenon of language hybridization in the Pashto context. The study will also be helpful in understanding the language contact situation in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Literature Review
The phenomena of globalization and British colonization are greatly responsible for the rapid growth in the spread of the English language. Globalization, which according to Gidden (1990) as cited in Alfehaid (2014), refers to worldwide social relations intensification, as a result of which distant localities are linked in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa. It basically refers to a more interconnected world where people, governments, and countries are more linked.
The phenomenon of globalization and the rapid growth in the spread of the English language across the globe proceed side by side. Meidani and Reza (2013) stated that there are strong ties between the spread of the English language and the phenomenon of globalization. Today, English is considered to be the most important language in the world. It is the language of commerce, technology, education, etc., and is acknowledged around the world as a prestigious language used as lingua franca. It is spoken in native and non-native contexts.
In multilingual contexts, where English is used as a foreign language, it has affected the local languages spoken in that context. Similarly, English has also been affected in non-native contexts resulting in different varieties of English. When spoken in non-native and multilingual contexts, the English language undergoes certain changes which have resulted in the phenomena of code-mixing, code-switching, borrowing, language hybridization, etc. As pointed out by Dilshad (2006), code-mixing exist in the multilingual context because of the transfer of lexical items between the different languages.
Mehboob (2003) pointed out that the lexis of Pakistani English is the most researched area. Baumgardner (1993) pointed out, as cited in Ahmad and Ali (2014), that words from Urdu and regional languages are frequently borrowed and used in Pakistani English. Rasul (2013) also explored the phenomena of code-mixing and lexical borrowing in written language. Data was collected from two children’s magazines which were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively to investigate their nature, functions, and causes. She concluded that the English words which were mostly used are common words that are prevalent in daily conversation and that borrowing and code-mixing of English words are mostly done because English is considered a prestigious language. That is why Pakistanis incorporate English lexical items in their own native language. As cited in Khan (2012), Baumgardner (1993, 1998) also concluded that Urdu borrowings, native vocabulary, and grammatical usages are being used in locally-produced English books. Riaz (2019) has also studied borrowing and code-mixing in Pakistani commercials concluding that boundaries between Urdu and English have been blurred, resulting in code-mixing. In TV commercials, code-mixing has been analyzed in another research conducted by Mushtaq and Zahra (2012). They concluded that code-mixing exists to a greater extent in TV commercials on Pakistani channels, i.e., Geo TV, ARY Digital Network, and HUM TV.
These phenomena of code-mixing and borrowing result in language hybridization, as pointed out by Rasul (2006). The process of hybridization also exists in the Urdu language, as pointed out by Baumgardner (1993) as given in Ahmad and Ali (2014). The English-Urdu lexical hybrids are used commonly by Urdu speakers in their spoken discourses, e.g., some of them are leaders, bankon, pipe-line, motorcycle, etc. English has donated much vocabulary to Urdu and other local languages, which resulted in the process of lexical borrowing and hybridization in Pakistan. Hybrid words have been studied in the Pakistani context by Mehboob (2003), who is of the view that when an Urdu word joins an English word, it results in the formation of a hybrid lexical item. Dilshad (2006), is of the same view and concluded that Urdu words have been replaced and mixed with English words resulting in language hybridization.
Similarly, Khan, Shah, Jang, Hamid, & Shams (2020) have studied the use of the phenomenon of hybridization in bank advertisements in Pakistan and concluded that English-Urdu hybridization has a persuasive role in the advertisements. Hybridization has also been studied by Rasul (2006), who conducted her study with the objective to examine the phenomena of language hybridization and code-mixing of English in Urdu in the multilingual context of Pakistan. For this purpose, she collected data from TV programs to show that media reflected the process of code-mixing and language hybridization in Pakistan and concluded that hybridization is mostly done within single words to make nouns plural.
Methodology
The present paper makes use of both the qualitative and the quantitative methods of research. It is quantitative in the sense that the research data has been divided into categories and sub-categories to show the frequencies of hybrid lexical items. The research is qualitative because it is observational and exploratory in nature. The present study attempts to explore and explain how and why the phenomenon of hybridization exists in Pashto spoken discourse.
Research data was collected from four TV programs in the Pashto language. The reason for taking some data from Pashto TV programs was to show that the use of English-Pashto lexical hybrids is also prevalent in the spoken discourse of Pashto speakers on television. The selected programs were related to different domains, i.e., political, health, law, entertainment, and sports. The reason for selecting programs related to different domains was to show that the phenomenon of hybridization is not confined to only one domain. The program's detail is given below.
Program 1: Top Stories with Ayaz khan, Ep no. 64, was aired on 13th July 2016. It was related to the political issues of Pakistan.
Program 2: Khyber Sahar ISL was aired on 3rd May 2016. In the first part of the program, some health problems were discussed, while the 2nd part was related to the Law domain.
Program 3: Sheena Meeno Show aired on 29th July 2016, was an entertainment program.
Program 4: Sports Mag Ep # 85 was aired on 31st July 2016. The program was related to the sports domain.
Apart from TV programs in the Pashto language, data was also collected through personal observation. Through observation, when the researcher collects data, he/she becomes the primary data collection instrument. When the observer observes, he/she is active and not the passive collector of data.
Data were analyzed by using the basic framework, which was taken from Kachru (1978). He gave the following categories while analyzing the process of code-mixing of English in Hindi.
Category A: Unit Insertion
a) Np Insertion
b) Vp Insertion.
Category B: Unit Hybridization
Category C: Sentence Insertion
Category D: Idioms and Collocation Insertion
Category E: Inflection Attachment and Reduplication.
However, Rasul (2006) has adopted Kachru’s framework, which is given above, for her dissertation “Language Hybridization in Pakistan as Socio-cultural phenomenon: An analysis of code-mixed linguistic patterns," in which she modified the framework to analyze the code-mixing of English in Urdu. So, this paper makes use of the research paradigm given by Rasul, which involves the following categories.
1. Category A: Insertion
2. Category B: Hybridization
3. Category C: Synthesis
Since the present study deals with hybridization only, so, category B which is, hybridization has been focused on in this term paper. English-Pashto hybrid lexical items will be analyzed first by analyzing the data collected from TV programs in the Pashto language, followed by the presentation of data collected through personal observation.
Data Analysis and Discussion
This section presents data of English-Pashto lexical hybrid items. The section presents the hybrid words collected from TV programs and through observation. Hybridization within single words is explored. >This section presents the data which shows hybridization within single words. The data collected from each program and through observation is listed separately.> >Program 1>The following table presents hybridization within single words collected from program 1.
> >Table 1. border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Hybridization within Single Words Collected from Program 1.
1. Postero
width="119" valign="top">2. partay
width="131" valign="top">3. partyaani
width="125" valign="top">4. ministeraan
5. journalistaan
width="119" valign="top">6. doctoraan
width="131" valign="top">7. anchoraan
width="125" valign="top">8. patwaryaano
9. posteri
width="119" valign="top">10. agencyaano
width="131" valign="top">11. generalaano
width="125" valign="top">12. questioni
13. damuna
width="119" valign="top">14. leaderaan
width="131" valign="top">15. companyaano
width="125" valign="top">16.
Hybridization in Single Words Collected from Program 2.
1. Officeraan
width="132" valign="top">2. Questioni
width="133" valign="top">3. buildinguna
width="126" valign="top">4. secretaryaan
5. boxa
width="132" valign="top">6. copyaani
width="133" valign="top">7. pencili
width="126" valign="top">8. cyclo
9. Bankunam
width="132" valign="top">10. buildingunam
width="133" valign="top">11. croro
width="126" valign="top">12. hospitaluno
13. doctory
width="132" valign="top">14. schooluno
width="133" valign="top">15. juicuna
width="126" valign="top">16. testuna
17. doctoraan
width="132" valign="top">18. testuno
width="133" valign="top">19. spraygaani
width="126" valign="top">20. channelo
21. paperi
width="132" valign="top">22. videom
width="133" valign="top">23. companyaani
width="126" valign="top">24. bottleo
25. drumuno
width="132" valign="top">26. doctoraano
width="133" valign="top">27. glassuna
width="126" valign="top">
Hybridization in Single Words Collected from Program 3.
1. filmy
width="124" valign="top">2. filmuna
width="128" valign="top">3. programuno
width="131" valign="top">4. filmuno
5. giftuna
width="124" valign="top">6. carduna
width="128" valign="top">7. messaguna
width="131" valign="top">8. funkaraan
9. ACgaan
width="124" valign="top">10. Glassa
width="128" valign="top">11. doctoraan
width="131" valign="top">12. artistaano
13. hospitaluna
width="124" valign="top">14. artistaan
width="128" valign="top">15. programuna
width="131" valign="top">16. hospitalunam
17. toastuna
width="124" valign="top">width="128" valign="top">
width="131" valign="top">
Hybridization in Single Words Collected from Program 4
1. Recordunam
width="125" valign="top">2. Bowler
width="125" valign="top">3. traineraano
width="126" valign="top">4. runsuno
5. runsuna
width="125" valign="top">6. matching
width="125" valign="top">7. fielder an
width="126" valign="top">8. catchuna
9. wicketi
width="125" valign="top">10. playeraan
width="125" valign="top">11. ballo
width="126" valign="top">12. positionuna
13. bowleraano
width="125" valign="top">14. pitchuna
width="125" valign="top">15. testuna
width="126" valign="top">16. bowleraan
17. tournamenti
width="125" valign="top">18. team no
width="125" valign="top">19. matchuna
width="126" valign="top">20. seriesuna
21. trophyaani
width="125" valign="top">22. shielduna
width="125" valign="top">23. hospitaluna
width="126" valign="top">24. hoteluna
25. sidea
width="125" valign="top">width="125" valign="top">
width="126" valign="top">
Data Collected Through Observation>The following tables i.e. 5-9 list the data which show single word hybridization. They were collected through personal observation and are related to different categories as following:
>Table 5. Hybridization within Single Words. Data Collected Through Observation border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="540">
Words Related to the Educational System
1. classuna
width="141" valign="top">2. perioduna
width="127" valign="top">3. siraan
width="123" valign="top">4. penuna
5. schooluna
width="141" valign="top">6. colleguna
width="127" valign="top">7. studentaan
width="123" valign="top">8. markeri
9. questioni
width="141" valign="top">10. paguna
width="127" valign="top">11. sheetuna
width="123" valign="top">12. pencili
13. filuna
width="141" valign="top">14. copyaani
width="127" valign="top">15. madamaani
width="123" valign="top">16. answeri
17. baguna
width="141" valign="top">18. universityaani
width="127" valign="top">19. engineeraan
width="123" valign="top">20. doctoraan
Words Related to Technology
1. laptop
width="135" valign="top">2. computer
width="117" valign="top">3. speaker
width="127" valign="top">4. fridge
5. Asian
width="135" valign="top">6. Lighting
width="117" valign="top">7. Bulbuna
width="127" valign="top">8. buttoni
9. cameri
width="135" valign="top">10. cellular
width="117" valign="top">11. switchuna
width="127" valign="top">12. generatori
13. freezer
width="135" valign="top">width="117" valign="top">
width="127" valign="top">
Words related to Mobile
width="144" valign="top">Words related to Sports
width="249" valign="top">Words related to Television/Entertainment
1. charger
width="144" valign="top">width="249" valign="top">
1. Ballina>2. drama
2. mobile
width="144" valign="top">1. catchuna
width="249" valign="top">3. filmuna
3. messaguna
width="144" valign="top">3. batuna
width="249" valign="top">4. programuna
4. calluna
width="144" valign="top">4. grouping
width="249" valign="top">5. programuno
5. selfiaani
width="144" valign="top">5. Jamuna
width="249" valign="top">
6. screenuna
width="144" valign="top">6. teamuna
width="249" valign="top">
Words Related to Transport
1. vagani
width="173" valign="top">2. busuna
width="175" valign="top">3. truckuna
4. motori
width="173" valign="top">5. scooteri
width="175" valign="top">6. seatuna
7. drivetrain
width="173" valign="top">8. rikishi
width="175" valign="top">9. cycli
Miscellaneous Words
1. creamuna
width="128" valign="top">2. chairuna
width="129" valign="top">3. table
width="128" valign="top">4. pursuna
5. glassuna
width="128" valign="top">6. skirtuna
width="129" valign="top">7. marble
width="128" valign="top">8. gatuna
9. stickers
width="128" valign="top">10. pipuna
width="129" valign="top">11. beltuna
width="128" valign="top">12. shirtuna
13. spraygaani
width="128" valign="top">14. brushuna
width="129" valign="top">15. sofi
width="128" valign="top">16. trousers
17. coatuna
width="128" valign="top">18. handli
width="129" valign="top">19. frockuna
width="128" valign="top">20. hanger
21. boot
width="128" valign="top">22. an>23. cardinal
width="129" valign="top">width="128" valign="top">
Programs
width="178">Frequency of hybrid words
Program 1
width="178">15
Program 2
width="178">27
Program 3
width="178">17
Program 4
width="178">25
Total single hybrid words collected from programs
width="178">84
Data through personal observation
width="178">No. of words
Words related to the educational system
width="178">20
Words related to technology
width="178">13
Words related to mobile
width="178">6
Words related to sports
width="178">6
Words related to television/entertainment
width="178">4
Words related to transport
width="178">9
Miscellaneous words
width="178">22
Total single hybrid words collected by observation
width="178">80
Total no. of single hybrid words
width="178">164
Plural suffix like "o" is added to cycle to make the hybrid word "cyclo”. Another Pashto plural suffix “una” is added to runs and glass to make hybrid forms “runsuna” and “glassuna" respectively. The following table, i.e., table 11 provides a list of Pashto suffixes based on the above-listed data which are frequently added to English words to make hybrid words.
>Table 11. List of Pashto Plural Suffixes border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="547">
Pashto Plural Suffixes
1. ay
width="107" valign="top">2. m
width="97" valign="top">3. y
width="112" valign="top">4. gaan
width="115" valign="top">5. gaani
6. unam
width="107" valign="top">7. a
width="97" valign="top">8. o
width="112" valign="top">9. aani
width="115" valign="top">10. uno
11. aano
width="107" valign="top">12. aan
width="97" valign="top">13. i
width="112" valign="top">14. una
width="115" valign="top">
The following tables i.e. 12-25 presents single hybrid words data according to their suffixes.> >Pashto Suffix “ay”>Only one English word from program 1 “party”>added “ay” to make hybrid. In Program 1, word “party” was used in the sentence i.e. >· “Barrister saib da Qaumi Watan Partay spokesperson d.
>Table 12 border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Pashto Plural Suffix “ay”
Program 1
width="418" valign="top">Partay
Pashto Plural Suffix “m”>Only one English word from program 2 “video” added “m” to make hybrid. In Program 2, word “video” was used in the sentence i.e. >· sa dase agha conversation km ch stasu shwalo, agha tasu record kare d, ya videom jora kraala …
Table 13 border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Pashto Plural Suffix “m”
Program 2
width="422" valign="top">Vodacom
Pashto Plural Suffix “y”>This category includes the words which are made hybrid by adding the Pashto plural suffix “y”. > >In Program 2: The word “doctor” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Nu tasu ch d, para hafta, da doctor said da tajarbaat a o da aghwe da doctor na faida ochatawale shay.>In Program 3: Word “filmy” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Nan saba filmy gaanim wae.
>Table 14 border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Pashto Plural Suffix “y”
Program 2
width="422" valign="top">I. Doctor
Program 3
width="422" valign="top">II. Filmy
Pashto Plural Suffix “gaan”>The English word AC (air conditioner) is made hybrid by adding the Pashto plural suffix “gaan”. > >In Program 3: Word “ACgaan” was used in the sentence i.e. >· Parun za laka hospital ta tale Om kana, kha ACgaan pake shoro d.
>Table 15 border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Pashto Plural Suffix “gaan”
Program 3
width="422" valign="top">i. Again
Pashto Plural Suffix “Gaani”>The English word “spray” is made hybrid by adding the Pashto plural suffix “gaani”. > >In Program 2: The word "spraygaani” was used in the sentence i.e. >· ch sumra ajnaas razi, sumra ghala razi, pa aghe da dunya spraygaani kege.
>Table 16 border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Pashto Plural Suffix “Gaani”
Program 2
width="422" valign="top">Spraygaani
Pashto Plural Suffix “Unam”>This category includes the words which are made hybrid by adding the Pashto plural suffix “unam”. In > >Program 2: Word “bankunam” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Da ch km rawan d, ch km stasu pa taxes o stasu pa paiso bande bankunam dak kare d…>In Program 3: Word “hospitalunam” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Sarakunam kha d, hospitalunam kha d.> >In Program 4: Word “recodunam” was used in the sentence i.e.>· pa aghe ke yo shmer recordunam jor shawe o.
> >Table 17. border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Pashto Plural Suffix “Unam”
Program 2
width="155" valign="top">i. Bankunam
width="268" valign="top">ii. Building name
Program 3
width="423" colspan="2" valign="top">i. Hospitalunam
Program 4
width="423" colspan="2" valign="top">i. Recordunam
Pashto Plural Suffix “a”>This category includes the words which are made hybrid by adding the Pashto plural suffix “a”. > >In Program 2: Word “box” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Cha b da kor na boxa raware wa, pa aghe bande bay lekal kawal.> >In Program 3: Word “glass” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Za drta waim oba skal hrwakh pakar d. so glassa?> >In Program 4: Word “sidea” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Da masala da km sidea wa.
Table 18 border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="537">
.Pashto Plural Suffix “a”
Program 2
width="427" colspan="2" valign="top">i. Boxa
Program 3
width="427" colspan="2" valign="top">ii. Glass
Program 4
width="153" valign="top">iii. Bowler
width="274" valign="top">i. Side
Pashto Plural Suffix “o”>This category includes the words which are made hybrid by adding the Pashto plural suffix “o”. > >In Program 1: The word "postero” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Da postero bara kem pake khabare raghale d.> >In Program 2: Word “bottle” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Preservatives ch pa km ke v, o pa bazar ke ch km pa bottleo ke v…> >In Program 4: Word “ballo” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Agha da Anderson, regular che (6) ballo bande the times ch d, ya keeper ya ch d 1st leg ta e catch wrkare d.
>Table 19 border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Pashto Plural Suffix “o”
Program 1
width="423" colspan="2" valign="top">i.Poster
Program 2
width="154" valign="top">i.Cyclo
width="269" valign="top">ii. Coro
iii. Channels
width="269" valign="top">iv. Bottle
Program 4
width="423" colspan="2" valign="top">i.Ballo
In Program 1: Word “partyaani” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Da inquiry bande, across da board accountability bande tol partyaani yozay d.> >In Program 2: Word “companyaani” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Dere kame dase companyaani d ch agha kha tail ch d agha jorae.> >In Program 4: Word “Tropicana" was used in the sentence i.e.>· Pa d moqa e gatawar cricket team ta o ghwara karkardagi khodunke khilarryano bande inamat, trophyaani o shielduna taqseem kral.
Table 20 border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Pashto Plural Suffix “Aani”
Program 1
width="408" colspan="2" valign="top">i.Partyaani
Program 2
width="161" valign="top">i.Copyaani
width="246" valign="top">ii.Companyaani
Program 4
width="408" colspan="2" valign="top">i.Tropyaani
Observation
width="161" valign="top">i.Copyaani
width="246" valign="top">ii.Madamaani
iii.Universityaani
width="246" valign="top">iv.Selfieaani
Pashto Plural Suffix “uno”>This category includes the words which are made hybrid by adding the Pashto plural suffix “uno”.> >In Program 2: Word “drumuno” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Dase ganda ganda drumuno ke agha prata v.> >In Program 3: Word “programuno” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Yara bs bazi auqaat ke dase v ch programuna v, programuno pa waja bandem…> >In Program 4: Word “matching" was used in the sentence i.e.>· Pa d matching ke ch d nu, agha sal wicketi, ch agha tar lasa kre nu, da Australia da bowler record b hum maat ke.
>Table 21 border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Pashto Plural Suffix “Uno”
Program 2
width="154" valign="top">i. Hospitaluno
width="254" valign="top">ii. Schooluno
iii. Testing
width="254" valign="top">iv . Drumuno
Program 3
width="154" valign="top">i. Programuno
width="254" valign="top">ii. Filmuno
Program 4
width="154" valign="top">i. Runsuno
width="254" valign="top">ii. Matsuno
iii. Teamuno
width="254" valign="top">
Observation
width="408" colspan="2" valign="top">i. Programuno
Pashto Plural Suffix “Aano”>This category includes the words which are made hybrid by adding the Pashto plural suffix “aano”. > >In Program 1: Word “generalaano” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Ya sa nur tariq e kar da generalaano dapara ch yo kaal sewa ki Chief of Army staff.>In Program 2: Word “doctoraano” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Aghe na pas bia munga pa doctoraano zargao rupay lagau kana.> >In Program 3: Word “Artistaano” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Artistaano saram kha d.> >In Program 4: Word “bowleraano” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Da agha agha skill da Pakistani bowleraano dapasa d.
>Table 22. border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Pashto Plural Suffix “Aano”
Program 1
width="156" valign="top">i.Patwaryaano
width="267" valign="top">i.Agencyaano
ii.Generalaano
width="267" valign="top">i.Companyaano
Program 2
width="423" colspan="2" valign="top">i.Doctoraano
Program 3
width="423" colspan="2" valign="top">i.Artistaano
Program 4
width="156" valign="top">i.Traineraano
width="267" valign="top">ii.Bowleraano
Pashto Plural Suffix “Aan”>This category includes the words which are made hybrid by adding the Pashto plural suffix “aan”. > >In Program 1: Word “anchorman” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Alta anchoraan azad d, alta TV azad d.> >In Program 2: Word “doctoraan” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Da mashoom ch km d kna, nu da da doctoraan wae kana, ch da da da aduke kamzori da. > >In Program 3: Word “artisan” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Mung sara der dostaan om o, artistaan. > >In Program 4: Word “fielderaan” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Joe Roots, ch km performance warko, pa aghe ke zyat las da Pakistan ch km fielderaan d, da aghwe hum o.
>Table 23 border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Pashto Plural Suffix “Aan”
Program 1
width="139" valign="top">i. Ministeraan
width="132" valign="top">ii. Doctoraan
width="137" valign="top">iii. Anchoraan
iv. Journalistaan
width="132" valign="top">v. Leaderaan
width="137" valign="top">
Program 2
width="139" valign="top">i.Officeraan
width="132" valign="top">ii.Doctoraan
width="137" valign="top">iii.Secretaryaan
Program 3
width="139" valign="top">i.Funkaraan
width="132" valign="top">ii.Doctoraan
width="137" valign="top">iii.artistaan
Program 4
width="139" valign="top">i.bowleraan
width="132" valign="top">ii.fielderaan
width="137" valign="top">iii.playeraan
Observation
width="139" valign="top">i.Siraan
width="132" valign="top">ii.Studentaan
width="137" valign="top">iii.Doctoraan
iv.Engineeraan
width="132" valign="top">v.Bootaan
width="137" valign="top">vi.Driveraan
Pashto Plural Suffix “i”>This category includes the words which are made hybrid by adding the Pashto plural suffix “i”. > >In Program 1: Word “posteri” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Cha khu lagole d kna, da posteri cha lagole d?> >In Program 2: Word “questioni” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Wae ch mung taqreeban da d alak na chalees questioni okrale.> >In Program 4: Word “wicketi” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Om dagha waja wa ch pa d Yasir Shah wicketi wanaghasti.
Table 24 border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Pashto Plural Suffix “i”
Program 1
width="133" valign="top">i. Posterior
width="264" colspan="2" valign="top">ii. Questions
Program 2
width="133" valign="top">i. Questions
width="130" valign="top">ii. Paper
width="135" valign="top">iii. pencil
Program 4
width="133" valign="top">i. Wicket
width="264" colspan="2" valign="top">ii. Tournament
Observation
width="133" valign="top">i. Table
width="130" valign="top">ii. Marble
width="135" valign="top">iii. Stickers
iv. Sofi
width="130" valign="top">v. Trousers
width="135" valign="top">vi. hangeri
vii. Handle
width="130" valign="top">viii. Laptop
width="135" valign="top">ix. Computer
x. Speaker
width="130" valign="top">xi. Button
width="135" valign="top">xii. markeri
xiii. cameri
width="130" valign="top">xiv. pencil
width="135" valign="top">xv. generatori
xvi. freezer
width="130" valign="top">xvii. questioni
width="135" valign="top">xviii. answeri
xix. drami
width="130" valign="top">xx. mobilei
width="135" valign="top">xxi. chargeri
width="133" valign="top">
xxii. scooteri
width="130" valign="top">xxiii. rikshi
width="135" valign="top">xxiv. motori
xxv. vagani
width="130" valign="top">xxvi. Cycle
width="135" valign="top">
Pashto Suffix “Una”>This category includes the words which are made hybrid by adding the Pashto plural suffix “uno”. > >In Program 1: Word “damuna” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Pa Afghanistan ke damuna jorae.> >In Program 2: Word “juicuna” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Sir, tasu mata da owaye, ch da juicuna khu hr suk nashi afford kawale.> >In Program 3: Word “hospitaluna” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Os e hospitaluna gware der khkule kal.> >In Program 4: Word “runsuna” was used in the sentence i.e.>· Hafeez agha shan cricket, agha shan runsuna na d kare sanga ch pakar d
> >Table 25 border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="539">
Pashto Plural Suffix “Una”
Program 1
width="431" colspan="3" valign="top">i.Damuna
Program 2
width="137" valign="top">i.Buildinguna
width="147" valign="top">ii.Juicuna
width="148" valign="top">iii.Tuna
iv.Glassuna
width="147" valign="top">width="148" valign="top">
Program 3
width="137" valign="top">i.Filmuna
width="147" valign="top">ii.Programuna
width="148" valign="top">iii.Giftuna
iv.Carduna
width="147" valign="top">v.messaguna
width="148" valign="top">vi.hospitaluna
vii. toastuna
width="147" valign="top">width="148" valign="top">
Program 4
width="137" valign="top">i.runsuna
width="147" valign="top">ii.catchuna
width="148" valign="top">iii.positionuna
iv.pitchuna
width="147" valign="top">v.testuna
width="148" valign="top">vi.matchuna
vii. shielduna >x. Seriesuna
width="147" valign="top">viii.Hospitaluna
width="148" valign="top">ix.Hoteluna
Observation
width="137" valign="top">i.Classuna
width="147" valign="top">ii.Perioduna
width="148" valign="top">iii.penuna
width="137" valign="top">
iv.schooluna
width="147" valign="top">v.colleguna
width="148" valign="top">vi.paguna
width="137" valign="top">
vii. sheetuna
width="147" valign="top">viii.filuna
width="148" valign="top">ix.baguna
width="137" valign="top">
x. creamuna
width="147" valign="top">xi.chairuna
width="148" valign="top">xii.pursuna
width="137" valign="top">
xiii. glassuna
width="147" valign="top">xiv.skirtuna
width="148" valign="top">xv.Gatuna
width="137" valign="top">
xvi.Pipuna
width="147" valign="top">xvii.Beltuna
width="148" valign="top">xviii.Shirtuna
width="137" valign="top">
xix.Brushuna
width="147" valign="top">xx.coatuna
width="148" valign="top">xxi.frockuna
width="137" valign="top">
xxii.cardinal
width="147" valign="top">xxiii.fridge
width="148" valign="top">xxiv.lightuna
width="137" valign="top">
xxv.bulbuna
width="147" valign="top">xxvi.celluna
width="148" valign="top">xxvii.switchuna
width="137" valign="top">
xxviii.messaguna
width="147" valign="top">xxix.calluna
width="148" valign="top">xxx.screenuna
width="137" valign="top">
xxxi.balluna
width="147" valign="top">xxxii.catchuna
width="148" valign="top">xxxiii.batuna
width="137" valign="top">
xxxiv.groupuna
width="147" valign="top">xxxv.teamuna
width="148" valign="top">xxxvi.gamuna
width="137" valign="top">
xxxvii.filmuna
width="147" valign="top">xxxviii.programuna
width="148" valign="top">xxxix.truckuna
width="137" valign="top">
xl.busuna
width="147" valign="top">xli.seatuna
width="148" valign="top">
As mentioned earlier, English in Pakistan is the co-official language and is considered a prestigious language and the language of the educated and elite class. The English lexical items which are code mixed in Urdu and other local languages are known as loan or borrowed words. People in Pakistan, use many English lexical items in their daily conversations. Urdu and regional languages have assimilated many English words. >The above-listed tables i.e. table 1-9 presented the data which revealed single word hybridization. The plural forms of these words exist like doctors, creams, pencils, artists etc. but Pashto speakers make the choice of the hybrid forms like doctoraan, creamuna, pencil, artistaan respectively. Speakers, make use of English words, but instead of using the plural form of these English lexical items, they use the Pashto plural form of the English loan words. >The following table i.e. table 26 provides a list of the number of single hybrid words according to their suffixes.
>Table 26. Single Hybrid Words According to their Suffixes border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
Pashto plural suffixes
width="114" valign="top">No. of words
width="150" valign="top">Pashto plural suffixes
width="142" valign="top">No. of words
1. ay
width="114" valign="top">1
width="150" valign="top">2. o
width="142" valign="top">6
3. m
width="114" valign="top">1
width="150" valign="top">4. aani
width="142" valign="top">8
5. y
width="114" valign="top">2
width="150" valign="top">6. uno
width="142" valign="top">10
7. gaan
width="114" valign="top">2
width="150" valign="top">8. aano
width="142" valign="top">8
9. gaani
width="114" valign="top">2
width="150" valign="top">10. aan
width="142" valign="top">20
11. unam
width="114" valign="top">4
width="150" valign="top">12. i
width="142" valign="top">33
13. a
width="114" valign="top">4
width="150" valign="top">14. una
width="142" valign="top">63
Total no. of single word hybrids = 164
Total 164 single lexical hybrids have been identified. These words are made hybrid by adding Pashto plural suffixes. Table 26 revealed that the suffixes “aan”, “i” and “una” are most frequently added to English words to make them plurals.
Conclusion
The study was conducted to explore the nature and some of the reasons for the formation of English-Pashto lexical hybrids in the Pashto spoken discourse of Pashtuns in the multilingual context of Pakistan. From the data analysis, the findings reveal that the English words that are frequently code mixed in daily Pashto conversation are nouns. These nouns are mostly loan/borrowed words and are being hybridized most frequently in the Pashto context. The findings also reveal that these loan words are hybridized to make plural forms. Furthermore, the English loan words are made plural by adding a plural suffix of Pashto to the English loan words. It has also been revealed, based on the research data, that, this usage of Pashto plural form of the English loan words is because of the influence of the mother tongue i.e. Pashto, on the non-native language i.e. English language.
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Cite this article
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APA : Akram, A. G., & Iqbal, L. (2021). Hybridization Within Single Words: An Analysis of the Formation of English- Pashto Lexical Hybrids In Pashto Spoken Discourse. Global Language Review, VI(I), 276-289. https://doi.org/10.31703/glr.2021(VI-I).30
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CHICAGO : Akram, Aiman Gul, and Liaqat Iqbal. 2021. "Hybridization Within Single Words: An Analysis of the Formation of English- Pashto Lexical Hybrids In Pashto Spoken Discourse." Global Language Review, VI (I): 276-289 doi: 10.31703/glr.2021(VI-I).30
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HARVARD : AKRAM, A. G. & IQBAL, L. 2021. Hybridization Within Single Words: An Analysis of the Formation of English- Pashto Lexical Hybrids In Pashto Spoken Discourse. Global Language Review, VI, 276-289.
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MHRA : Akram, Aiman Gul, and Liaqat Iqbal. 2021. "Hybridization Within Single Words: An Analysis of the Formation of English- Pashto Lexical Hybrids In Pashto Spoken Discourse." Global Language Review, VI: 276-289
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MLA : Akram, Aiman Gul, and Liaqat Iqbal. "Hybridization Within Single Words: An Analysis of the Formation of English- Pashto Lexical Hybrids In Pashto Spoken Discourse." Global Language Review, VI.I (2021): 276-289 Print.
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OXFORD : Akram, Aiman Gul and Iqbal, Liaqat (2021), "Hybridization Within Single Words: An Analysis of the Formation of English- Pashto Lexical Hybrids In Pashto Spoken Discourse", Global Language Review, VI (I), 276-289
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TURABIAN : Akram, Aiman Gul, and Liaqat Iqbal. "Hybridization Within Single Words: An Analysis of the Formation of English- Pashto Lexical Hybrids In Pashto Spoken Discourse." Global Language Review VI, no. I (2021): 276-289. https://doi.org/10.31703/glr.2021(VI-I).30